What did a farmer eat in the 13th century? How did a bishop’s diet differ from that of a craftsman? Diet in the Middle Ages was far more than just bread and beer – it was a reflection of society, shaped by social class, region and the rhythm of the Church.
What you can expect in this article
- Background: What shaped medieval diets
- Social differences: Who ate what?
- Sources on the history of diet
- Cereals, bread and porridge: The absolute backbone
- Vegetables, fruit and pulses
- Meat consumption and animal products
- Fish and Lenten dishes
- Church dietary rules and fasting practices
- Medical concepts: Humoral pathology at the table
- Preservation and food storage
- Kitchens, cooking techniques and everyday cooking
- Table manners and food culture
- Regional differences
- Drinks: water, beer, wine and others
- Food crises and famines
- Myths surrounding medieval diets
- Medieval diet in LARP and re-enactment
- FAQ – Frequently asked questions about medieval diet
Reading time approx. 14 mins.And it was surprisingly varied. Anyone who thinks that people in the Middle Ages ate a monotonous diet is mistaken. Peasants ate differently from merchants, monks differently from knights, and the south differently from the north. What they had in common: grain as the absolute staple, the Church setting the pace for the diet – and the constant fear of the next winter of famine.
The key points at a glance:
- Bread, porridge and beer formed the calorie base for all social classes – 50 to 91 per cent of calories came from grain.
- Church fasting days shaped the entire diet, with up to around 150 meat-free days per year.
- Peasants ate rye, cabbage and pulses; noble banquets featured wheat bread, game and imported spices.
- Medical beliefs based on humoral pathology influenced what was considered healthy.
- Preservation methods such as smoking, curing and drying were essential for survival.
Context: What shaped medieval diets
The Middle Ages span around a thousand years – from the early 5th to the end of the 15th century. During this period, eating habits changed considerably. Four factors shaped what was served at the table:
| Factor | Impact |
|---|---|
| Climate | The Medieval Warm Period (until around the 13th century) enabled better harvests |
| Three-field system | Increased yields through systematic crop rotation |
| Transport routes | Slow and expensive – local markets dominated |
| Church calendar | Fasting and feast days structured the diet throughout the year |
The heavy reliance on local harvests meant that a poor harvest could plunge entire regions into disaster. The Church, with its days of fasting and feasting, determined the annual rhythm of food consumption – an influence that permeated all social classes.
Social differences: Who ate what?
The class-based society of the Middle Ages was directly reflected on the table. Social class and wealth were more decisive factors than the urban-rural divide.
Peasant fare
Peasants and the common people lived off what their own farms produced:
- rye bread and barley bread as daily staples
- Oatmeal porridge as a morning or evening meal
- Cabbage, turnips, parsnips and peas
- Beans and lentils as important sources of protein
- Occasionally pork and bacon – especially after the autumn slaughter
This diet was simple, but by no means lacking in nutrients. Pulses often replaced meat and provided essential protein. In years of famine, even the wealthy stretched their bread with bran, chestnut flour or even tree bark.
The noble table
The nobility and wealthy clergy enjoyed a significantly more varied diet:
- Light wheat bread as a status symbol
- Regular consumption of meat: pork, beef, poultry and, above all, game
- High-quality fish from their own ponds
- Spices such as pepper, cinnamon and saffron from long-distance trade
The upper middle classes in Hanseatic cities or southern German trading centres fell somewhere in between – with access to imported goods, but less ostentation than at princely courts.
Sources on the history of diet
How do historians know what people ate centuries ago? Our knowledge is based on various types of sources – although the upper classes are significantly over-represented in written sources.
Archaeological finds
- Latrine contents and refuse pits provide direct evidence of the food consumed
- Bone and plant remains reveal which animals and plants were on the menu
- Pottery shards provide insights into storage and preparation
Written sources
- Monastic dietary regulations document in detail who was allowed to eat what
- Customs and tax lists show which foods were traded
- Cookbooks such as *Daz buoch von guoter spîse* (c. 1350) or *Kuchenmeysterey* (1485) preserve recipes
Visual sources
Wall paintings, illuminated manuscripts and woodcuts depict banquets, kitchen work and peasant labour in the fields. However, these images should be interpreted with caution – they often show idealised or symbolic representations, rarely real everyday life.
Cereals, bread and porridge: the absolute backbone
Cereals were the undisputed foundation of the medieval diet. In many regions, 50 to 75 per cent of the calories consumed came from cereal products – in some population groups, as much as 91 per cent.
| Region | Main grain varieties |
|---|---|
| North and East | Rye, barley, oats |
| Southern Germany and the Alpine region | Spelt, wheat |
| Monastic centres | Preferably wheat and spelt |
Types of bread and their significance
The daily bread ration varied between 0.4 and 1 kilogram in normal times:
- Dark rye bread or mixed-grain bread – the everyday bread of ordinary people
- Light wheat or spelt bread – a status symbol reserved for the upper classes
- Rolls and sweet pastries – only for wealthy urban consumers
Porridges and flour-based dishes
Alongside bread, porridges played a central role: oatmeal as a typical peasant fare, groats made from various grains, millet porridge with herbs or bacon. In times of crisis, emergency breads were made, stretched with chestnuts, acorns or roots – with consequences for health.
Vegetables, fruit and pulses
‘Cabbage and turnips’ – the expression describes quite accurately what grew in the medieval garden and ended up on the table.
Typical vegetables
- Various types of cabbage (white cabbage, kale)
- Turnips and parsnips (the potato did not arrive until the modern era)
- Wild carrots, leeks, onions and garlic
- Swiss chard, spinach, cucumbers and radishes
Legumes as a meat substitute
In rural communities, pulses were often used as a meat substitute due to their high protein content: peas in soups or porridge, field beans in stews, and lentils as a nutritious side dish. These dishes formed the basis of many meals.
Fruit – fresh and preserved
Fresh fruit was only available at harvest time: apples and pears, plums and cherries, various berries – and in monastery gardens, quinces too. Interestingly, raw fruit was often considered unhealthy. It was therefore dried, preserved as purée or compote, or pickled in wine. Preservation methods: lactic acid fermentation (sauerkraut), drying and sun-drying, pickling in vinegar, brine or wine.
Meat consumption and animal products
Meat was generally in high demand, but availability and frequency varied greatly – depending on social class, the season and the church calendar with its many days of fasting.
| Role | Role in the diet |
|---|---|
| Pigs | Preferred source of meat, inexpensive to keep |
| Cattle | More important as draught animals and milk suppliers than as a source of meat |
| Sheep and goats | Regionally significant |
| Poultry | Chickens and geese in many households |
The slaughter season for pigs was usually in November and December. The meat was preserved by salting, drying and smoking and had to last until at least Easter.
Game – reserved for the nobility
Deer, roe deer, wild boar, hare, pheasant, swan and peacock were, by law, mostly reserved for the nobility. In the Early Middle Ages, commoners still had access to game – with the development of stronger feudal structures in the High Middle Ages, hunting rights became a noble privilege.
Dairy products
As fresh milk spoiled quickly, processing was key: butter as an important cooking fat (especially in the north), various types of cheese as long-lasting sources of protein and fat, and cream for fine dishes. In peasant households, everything was used in its entirety – offal, black pudding and boiled pork.
Fish and Lenten dishes
Due to the many days of fasting, fish played a key role. Meat was forbidden on Ash Wednesday and Fridays, as well as throughout the pre-Easter fasting period.
Fish species and their origins
Freshwater: carp from ponds, pike from rivers, perch and eel
Sea fish: herring as the ‘fish of the poor’, cod as stockfish via long-distance trade
The development of pond farming and carp breeding from the 13th century onwards significantly increased the availability of fish.
Other Lenten foods
In addition to fish, other permitted foods on fasting days included snails, vegetable oils, almonds and almond milk as a substitute for cow’s milk, as well as rice in wealthy households.
An interesting detail: the definition of ‘fish’ was often interpreted quite broadly. There were serious theological debates as to whether beavers or otters should count as fish – after all, they lived in the water. An example of creative interpretation of the fasting rules.
Church dietary laws and fasting practices
The liturgical calendar structured eating habits throughout the year. The church’s rules were not mere recommendations – they were largely followed and had tangible economic consequences.
Typical prohibitions on fasting days:
- No meat from warm-blooded animals
- Partial abstinence from milk and eggs
- No use of animal fats for cooking
An example illustrates just how strict this was: between 1495 and 1525, the 49 monks at Westminster Abbey in London ate fish on an average of 215 days a year – a direct result of the fasting rules.
Up to around 150 fasting days a year could be observed, depending on the region and interpretation. The Church recognised that strict fasting could be harmful in certain situations: children under the age of seven were exempt, the sick and pregnant women were granted dispensations, and those engaged in heavy physical labour could expect some leniency. From the 15th century onwards, eggs and dairy products were also permitted on some fasting days.
Medical beliefs: Humoral pathology at the table
The doctrine of the four humours – blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile – originated in ancient medicine and remained influential throughout the Middle Ages. This humoral pathology directly influenced what was considered healthy food.
| Property | Examples |
|---|---|
| Warm and dry | Pepper, ginger |
| Cold and moist | Fish, cucumbers |
| Warm and moist | Wine, certain types of meat |
| Cold and dry | Lentils, vinegar |
People tried to balance individual ‘temperaments’ and prevent illness through their choice of food. The recommended menu:
- Spices such as caraway, aniseed and fennel with honey – to ‘open’ the stomach
- Vegetables such as cabbage and easily digestible meat such as chicken
- Hard-to-digest meats such as pork and beef
- Digestive aids such as spiced wine or spiced biscuits to finish
Hildegard von Bingen was a leading authority of her time – with recommendations for spelt, sweet chestnuts, fennel and herbs to maintain good health. Given the regular food shortages, being well-nourished was regarded as a sign of prosperity. At the same time, church morality warned against gluttony and drunkenness.
Preservation and stockpiling
Without effective preservation, survival was not assured. Summer and autumn were times for storing food, whilst winter and spring were times of consumption and scarcity.
| Method | Application |
|---|---|
| Smoking | Meat, fish |
| Curing (salting) | Meat, fish |
| Drying | Fruit, fish (stockfish), meat |
| Fermenting | Cabbage (sauerkraut), vegetables |
| Pickling | Vegetables in vinegar or wine |
| Preserving in honey / fat | Only wealthy households; confit method |
Fish was preserved as stockfish or salted herring for long-distance trade – widespread across Europe and economically significant. Poor preservation could affect taste and health – spoiled food was a constant danger.
Kitchens, cooking techniques and everyday cooking
The contrast between a simple peasant kitchen and an elaborately organised manor kitchen was enormous.
Cooking techniques in everyday life
- Open hearth fire in the smokehouse
- Tripod pots and hanging cauldrons
- In towns, use of communal ovens
- Rarely enclosed stoves
Cooking was labour-intensive: grain had to be ground, water and firewood fetched, and stews stirred for hours on end.
Organisation of large kitchens
In large estates during the late Middle Ages, there were specialised roles: master bakers, master winemakers, those responsible for meat and fish, as well as numerous kitchen assistants.
Typical everyday dishes
- Cereal porridges with herbs
- Vegetable stews with a little bacon
- Soup made from whatever was available
- Simple meat soups on festive days
Table manners and dining culture
Eating has always been a social occasion – from the simple peasant’s wooden table to the sumptuous banquet table of the nobility.
Banquets and feasts
At noble courts, banquets were elaborate events featuring multiple courses, strict seating arrangements based on rank, and ceremonial serving rituals. A guest’s position at the table indicated their social standing.
Rules of etiquette
Etiquette manuals and sermons demanded good behaviour: washing hands before eating, sharing a knife with one’s neighbour, not wolfing down food or smacking one’s lips, and avoiding gluttony.
Tableware and cutlery
| Object | Distribution |
|---|---|
| Wooden or ceramic bowls | Widespread |
| Plates made of pewter or wood | Wealthy households |
| Slices of bread as plates | Instead of plates – practical and edible |
| Knives | Personal cutlery; everyone used their own |
| Spoons | Simple and common |
| Forks | Only sporadically from the late Middle Ages onwards |
Regional differences
Europe was not a uniform culinary region in the Middle Ages. Climate, soil and economic systems ensured great diversity.
The Mediterranean south
- Olive oil as the main source of fat
- Wine as an everyday drink
- Figs, almonds and citrus fruits
- More wheat bread than in the north
The north and east
- Rye, oats and barley as the dominant cereals
- Frequent use of animal fats (butter, bacon) instead of oil
- Cabbage dishes and hearty stews
- A strong beer culture
Despite all the differences, certain products united the continent in culinary terms: stockfish, salted herring, sauerkraut and imported spices such as pepper.
Drinks: water, beer, wine and others
The ratio of water to alcoholic drinks varied greatly – depending on the region and availability.
Water
Flowing springs and wells in the countryside were usually relatively clean. Urban watercourses could be heavily polluted – but water was by no means generally undrinkable, as is often claimed.
Beer – the drink of the North
In Central and Northern Europe, beer was the staple drink: initially brewed with herbs (grut), and later increasingly with hops. Monastic breweries played an important role from the 9th century onwards.
Wine
In wine-growing regions, wine was commonplace and was often diluted with water. In the north, it remained more of an imported commodity and a status drink. Wine was considered wholesome and medically beneficial.
Other drinks
- Mead, in some regions, as a festive drink
- Herbal infusions and simple fruit wines were common locally
- Tea and coffee only from the early modern period
Food crises and famines
The risk of crop failures and famine remained ever-present. Typical causes of crises:
- Bad weather (from the 14th century onwards, harbingers of the Little Ice Age)
- Wars and looting
- Epidemics and locust plagues
- Speculation on grain prices by traders
Stocks ran low, particularly after harsh winters and crop failures. The situation became catastrophic when even seed grain had to be used as food. Malnutrition increased susceptibility to disease and played an indirect role in the ‘Black Death’.
Adaptation strategies: migration to less affected regions, switching to lower-quality food, support from monasteries and urban alms, consumption of plants and animals not normally eaten.
Myths surrounding medieval diet
Myth: Water was undrinkable; people drank only beer.
Reality: In the countryside, well water was usually clean. Towns had greater water problems, but water was drunk there too.
Myth: Spices were used to mask the taste of spoiled meat.
Reality: Spices were a treasure and a sign of status. No one would have wasted expensive imported spices on spoiled meat.
The expression ‘go where the pepper grows’ refers to the distant trade routes via which pepper reached Europe – a hint at just how precious and far-flung the origin of this commodity was.
What is considered a superfood today was everyday fare back then
- Spelt instead of modern wheat varieties
- Field beans as a source of protein
- Parsnips instead of potatoes
These are now regarded as specialities and are enjoying a revival – yet they are simply the culinary heritage of the Middle Ages.
Medieval diet in LARP and reenactment
Anyone portraying a medieval character should also consider what they eat. An authentic camp at a medieval market eats differently from a fantasy adventurer in LARP – and both are rooted in historical reality.
Some guidelines from historical practice:
- Peasants / common folk: rye bread, lentil porridge, turnip stew, porridge – authentic, cheap, filling
- Townspeople / merchants: wheat bread, cheese, salted fish, simple herbs such as parsley and caraway
- Nobility / knights: white bread, roast poultry or game, spiced wine, imported ingredients such as saffron or pepper
- Clergy / monks: Lenten fare, fish dishes, pulses, almond milk as a milk substitute, herbal tea
For the camp: genuine linen for eating and drinking, wooden bowls, a personal knife on your belt and a wooden or clay cup – these are the right accessories to complete the picture. At vehi-mercatus you’ll find accessories, belt pouches and utensils that are part of an authentic medieval character. Take a look.
FAQ – Frequently asked questions about diet in the Middle Ages
Was there such a thing as a vegetarian diet in the Middle Ages?
Conscious ethical vegetarianism in the modern sense was virtually non-existent. In reality, however, the diet of many people was predominantly plant-based for long periods – because meat was expensive and scarce. Monks and nuns lived ‘vegetarian’ at times due to fasting rules, motivated by religious precepts rather than modern ideology.
How many times a day did people eat in the Middle Ages?
In the Early and High Middle Ages, a two-meal pattern was common: a main meal around midday and a second towards evening. Breakfast often consisted of only a small snack – bread, beer or cheese – or was omitted altogether. The three-meal pattern only emerged in the Late Middle Ages and from the 16th century onwards.
How healthy was the diet in the Middle Ages?
The daily diet of many peasants was relatively nutritious due to its high proportion of whole grains, vegetables and pulses. However, there were major problems: frequent periods of scarcity, vitamin deficiency in late winter, and the dangers posed by spoiled food. Ordinary people tended to suffer from malnutrition, whilst the upper classes tended to suffer from overindulgence and associated health problems such as gout.
Which spices were particularly popular in the Middle Ages?
Commonly used herbs from gardens included parsley, dill, coriander, caraway, sage, thyme and fennel. For the wealthy, these were supplemented by expensive imported spices: pepper, cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, cloves and saffron – brought via trade routes from the Middle East and Asia and consequently highly prized.
Did children have a different diet to adults?
Infants were initially breastfed and then introduced relatively quickly to the general family diet – porridge, bread and soup. There were hardly any special children’s dishes. Depending on their age, children were sometimes exempt from fasting rules or only had to observe them to a lesser extent.
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